September 2020 Pulmonary Case of the Month: An Apeeling Example

Lewis J. Wesselius, MD

Department of Pulmonary Medicine

Mayo Clinic Arizona

Scottsdale, AZ USA

History of Present Illness

A 67-year-old woman who developed a chronic nonproductive cough beginning in October 2019. After 4 weeks, she consulted her primary care physician.

PMH, SH, and FH

• She had a history of several prior pneumonias, including respiratory syncytial virus in 2018
• Irritable bowel syndrome
• Hypertension
• Prior smoker: 28 pack years, none since 1999
• FH negative

Physical Examination

Her physical examination is recorded as unremarkable other than decreased nasal flow.

Which of the following is/are common cause(s) of a chronic cough? (Click on the correct answer to be directed to the second of seven pages)

1. Cough-variant asthma
2. Gastroesophageal reflux disease
3. Upper airway cough syndrome (UACS) secondary to rhinosinus diseases
4. 1 and 3
5. All of the above

Cite as: Wesselius LJ. September 2020 pulmonary case of the month: an apeeling example. Southwest J Pulm Crit Care. 2020;21(3):56-63. doi: https://doi.org/10.13175/swjpcc048-20 PDF

Infected Chylothorax: A Case Report and Review

Louis Eubank¹, Luke Gabe¹, Monica Kraft¹, and Dean Billheimer²

¹Departments of Medicine and Biostatistics, College of Medicine

²Department of Biostatistics, College of Public Health

University of Arizona Health Sciences Center

Tucson, AZ USA

Abstract

Infected chylothorax is a rare complication of a rare pathology with limited literature entirely consisting of case reports, meeting abstracts, and letters to the editor. The case of a 56-year-old male with a spontaneous infected chylothorax successfully treated and discharged to home without any residual effects is described. A systematic review of the literature revealed 11 prior cases of infected chylothoraces. Their etiologies (when known), initial pleural fluid values, and treatment are described. These cases show that while infected chylothorax has a varied presentation and affects a broad range of patients, conservative management including antibiotics, pleural fluid drainage, and symptomatic relief is a safe and appropriate starting point.

Introduction

Chylothorax, a pleural effusion caused by chyle accumulation from obstruction or disruption of the thoracic duct (please see SWJPCC’s Image of the week: chylothorax for an image of non-infected chyle fluid), is a rare condition that may arise from a diversity of etiologies broadly categorized as traumatic or non-traumatic/spontaneous (1). Traumatic causes commonly include iatrogenic injury and chest trauma, although insults as minor as sneezing, light exercise and emesis have been reported (1-3). Non-traumatic chylothorax has been linked to several immunologic and infectious etiologies (1). Regardless of the underlying mechanism, chyle has classically been considered inherently bacteriostatic (1). We present a case of spontaneous infected chylothorax and the first review of infected chylothoraces reported in the literature.

Case Report

A 56-year-old man with alcoholic cirrhosis and remote right-sided hepatic hydrothorax presented to the emergency department complaining of shortness of breath. Patient reported slowly worsening dyspnea over the last six weeks without any other symptoms that had acutely worsened on morning of presentation

Initial vital signs were temperature 38.0°C, heart rate 115, blood pressure 81/60mmHg, and respiratory rate 30 breaths/min on 4L O₂ by nasal cannula; labs significant for white blood cell count of 3100/mm³ and lactate 5.0 mmol/L (normal <2.0 mmol/L).  Physical exam demonstrated a fatigued patient with accessory muscle use on inspiration and absent breath sounds at the left lung base. Computed tomography (CT) study of the chest showed a large free-flowing left-sided pleural effusion (Figure 1A&B) as well as subacute rib fractures (Image 1C).

Figure 1. Thoracic CT on the day of presentation. Panel A: Axial view showing pleural effusion. Panel B: Sagittal view showing pleural effusion. Panel C: Coronal view showing rib fractures (white arrows).

Chart review demonstrated an emergency department visit five months previously for a fall with acute left-sided rib fractures and minimal left-sided pleural effusion.

Thoracentesis removed two liters free-flowing, brown, milky, purulent fluid; analysis significant for 58,880 total nucleated cells (32,800 RBCs), 94% neutrophils, glucose <5, LDH 573 IU/dL (serum 193 IU/dL), triglycerides 191 mg/dL, albumin 1.8 g/dL (serum albumin 2.6 g/dL, laboratory lower limit of normal 3.4 g/dL).

The patient remained hypotensive despite fluid boluses, tachypneic with increasing oxygen requirements, and a repeat lactate was 6.4 mmol/L. Norepinephrine and broad-spectrum antibiotics were started and patient was admitted to the intensive care unit.

Pleural fluid and blood cultures grew Escherichia coli resistant to fluoroquinolones. Chest x-ray showed persistent pleural effusion; a chest tube was placed which drained an additional 1.6 L over the following 24 hrs. The patient subsequently improved: serum lactate normalized within 24 hours, vasopressors were weaned within 36 hours, and supplemental oxygen was discontinued within 72 hours.

Chest tube output decreased to less than 200 ml/day within 48 hours of placement; however, repeat thoracic CT demonstrated a persistent multi-loculated left pleural effusion. Surgical evacuation and pleurodesis were considered given the lack of literature regarding intrapleural lytic therapy in infected chylothorax (a single case report described use of streptokinase in a persistent non-infected chylothorax, 1).  However, the patient’s operative risk was considered prohibitively high. He was managed conservatively with a fat-free diet to reduce chyle leak.

Eleven days after initial presentation fluid studies were significant for triglyceride 45mg/dL with negative cultures. Given that a pleural fluid triglyceride level <50mg/dL yields a less than 5% likelihood of being chylous and the clinical stability of the patient, the chylothorax was felt to be resolved (1). The patient was discharged to home twelve days after initial presentation.

The etiology of patient’s infected chylothorax was never fully elucidated. The most likely explanation is the trauma causing rib fractures also caused a traumatic chylothorax that later became infected. The thoracic duct lies alongside the vertebrae until it drains into the left brachiocephalic vein (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Thoracic duct anatomy (black arrows).

A blow to the posterior left thorax sufficient to fracture multiple ribs is more than sufficient to damage the nearby thoracic duct (1-4).  Arguing against this is most patients with large traumatic chylothoraces present within 10 days of injury (1,2).

Another explanation is the patient developed bacterial empyema secondary to hepatic hydrothorax (ascites that has passed through diaphragm from the peritoneal cavity) followed by non-traumatic chylothorax. These empyemas can demonstrate an indolent course and Escherichia coli is one of the most common causative pathogens isolated (1). Arguing against this is the patient’s previous hepatic hydrothorax was right-sided.

Finally, the chylothorax may have arisen from one of the many known causative medical pathologies (2). Chylous ascites secondary to cirrhosis that migrates into the pleural space via diaphragmatic leaks defects is a known phenomenon, albeit extremely rare (2).

In follow-up two months after discharge the patient had total resolution of respiratory symptoms and no recurrence of the effusion.

Systematic Review

Methods

A MEDLINE search (PubMed) from January 1975 to January 2018 and a Google Scholar search (all years) was conducted to identify eligible studies using the following terms: “Infected Chylothorax” (all fields) OR “Infection AND Chylothorax” (all fields) OR “Chylothorax AND Empyema” (all fields) OR “Chylous Empyema” (all fields). The inclusion criteria for studies were patients with infected non-traumatic chylothorax. A triglyceride level > 110 mg/dL or the presence of chylomicrons in pleural fluid was used to confirm the diagnosis of chylothorax; pleural fluid culture speciation was used to confirm the infection. The exclusion criteria were a lack of laboratory data and duplicate data. Two reviewers (LE, LG) independently reviewed the titles, abstracts, and, when necessary, the full text regarding the inclusion/exclusion criteria. Data extraction was performed independently by two reviewers (LE, LG) using data extraction forms defined beforehand. Discrepancies were resolved by consensus discussion with a third reviewer (MK).

Results

Eight case reports, two published abstracts, and one letter to the editor met the inclusion criteria; all eleven were included in the analysis (Figure 3, 13-23). 

Figure 3. Flow diagram of the literature review.

The general characteristics, demographics, and etiology of infected chylothorax are summarized in Table 1, the initial pleural fluid values are reported in Table 2.

Table 1. Population data.

Table 2. Initial pleural fluid values.

There were 11 patients total: six males and five females; age range 5 days-78 years, mean age 40.5 years (standard deviation 28.5 years). One patient was pharmacologically immunosuppressed while others had chronic diseases known to reduce immune system function including diabetes, excessive alcohol intake, and obesity (24-26). Four (36%) were iatrogenic. Three patients (27%) were infected with Streptococcus viridans and five (45%) were infected with Streptococcus genus. In those with available data, three of ten patients (30%) required intravenous vasopressors. No patients required ventilator management for their chylothorax (two patients were already intubated, one for acute respiratory distress syndrome, the other for unstable hemodynamics secondary to large subarachnoid hemorrhage). Two patients (18%) were managed surgically – one was specifically noted to have failed conservative management (17). Of the known outcomes, eight of nine (89%) survived to discharge and all eight remained asymptomatic at follow-up. The mean follow-up duration was 13.3 months (range 6-24 months).

Discussion

Given the paucity of published experience regarding infected chylothoraces, we believe a descriptive summary is warranted. First, there is a large variation in patient characteristics, including age range, immune competence, comorbid medical conditions, and infectious organism (eight different bacterial species and one parasite).

Second, many of the reviewed cases had a more benign presentation than might be anticipated in the context of a large, infected intrathoracic fluid collection.  Seven of the patients (73%) were hemodynamically stable on presentation and the majority of these patients had very mild chief complaints.

Third, the available data suggest a surprisingly good prognosis considering a previously estimated morality of 10-25% in non-infected chylothoraces, depending on etiology (27). The one patient who did not survive to discharge died due to brain herniation. Those with documented outpatient follow-up were asymptomatic up to 16 months post-discharge. 

Fourth, conservative management was frequently efficacious. Eight patients (73%) were medically managed without complication and did not require extensive antibiotic duration, intrapleural lytic therapy, or surgical intervention. The decision to pursue surgical intervention is not well defined given the very limited number of cases requiring surgical management. A brief discussion of non-infected chylothoraces and their management is therefore warranted.

Non-infected chylothorax is universally described as a rare event, although its exact incidence has not been described. Chylous ascites, which sometimes shares pathogenesis with chylothorax and is one of the causes of spontaneous chylothorax, has an occurrence of one in 20,000 hospital admissions (12). Trauma accounts for approximately 50% of chylothoraces, with esophagectomy being the most common iatrogenic cause (28). Thirty percent are due to malignancy; lymphoma accounts for 70-75% of malignant cases (11). While there are no consensus guidelines on how to treat chylothoraces, many authors agree that first line treatment is conservative management with thoracentesis or chest tube drainage, fat free or medium chain triglyceride diet, and consideration of somatostatin or octreotide (1,5,11,27-29). Although somatostatin or octreotide are used at many institutions, data regarding indications & efficacy of these medications are limited and/or inconsistent – some institutions use these medications at the beginning of treatment, others only if/when initial management has failed (5,27).

Additional treatments may depend on the etiology of the chylothorax: it is suggested that earlier surgical intervention in iatrogenic traumatic chylothoraces, especially post-esophagectomy, may be beneficial (30). Conservative management is likely to fail and surgical intervention is recommended in the following situations: 1) daily drainage greater than 1000 mL chyle (adults) or greater than 100mL chyle/kg body weight (children); 2) chyle leak that persists for more than 14 days; 3) unchanged chest tube output for 7-14 days; 4) clinical deterioration (27,28).

Conservative management for infected chylothoraces appears efficacious in our small sample size with the obvious modification of treating the infection. Most antibiotics adequately penetrate the pleural space, although aminoglycosides should be avoided as they appear to be inactivated by the low pH and relative anaerobic conditions (31).

Limitations

The limitation of this systematic review was the inclusion of only case reports, abstracts, and letters to the editor and the small sample size. Unfortunately, given the rarity of infected chylothoraces, studies with sufficient sample size are unlikely to be available.

Conclusion

Infected chylothorax is a rare complication of an already rare pathology. Our case report and literature review show that it can affect any age group, can be caused by several different organisms, and has a variable presentation. Our data suggests that an initial conservative management strategy in infected chylothoraces can be a safe and effective option.

References

1. McGrath E, Blades Z, Anderson P. Chylothorax: aetiology, diagnosis and therapeutic options. Respir Med. 2010;104:1-8. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. García-Tirado J, Landa-Oviedo HS, Suazo-Guevara I. Spontaneous bilateral chylothorax caused by a sneeze: an unusual entitiy with good prognosis. Arch Bronconeumol. 2017 Jan;53(1):32-3. [CrossRef]
3. Torrejais JC, Rau CB, de Barros JA, Torrejais MM. Spontaneous chylothorax associated with light physical activity. J Bras Pneumol. 2006 Nov-Dec;32(6):599-602. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Rodrigues AL, Romaneli MT, Ramos CD, Fraga AM, Pereira RM, Appenzeller S, Marini R, Tresoldi AT. Bilateral spontaneous chylothorax after severe vomiting in children. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2016 Dec;34(4):518-521. [PubMed]
5. Bender B, Murthy V, Chamberlain RS. The changing management of chylothorax in the modern era. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2016 Jan;49(1):18-24. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. Verma SK, Karmakar S. Hodgkin's lymphoma presenting as chylothorax. Lung India. 2014 Apr-Jun; 31(2):184-6. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. Kuan YC, How SH, Ng TH, Abdul Rani MF. Intrapleural streptokinase for the treatment of chylothorax. Respir Care. 2011 Dec;56(12):1953-5. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
8. Nair SK, Petko M, Hayward M. Aetiology and management of chylothorax in adults. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2007 Aug;32(2):362-9. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
9. Pillay TG, Singh B. A review of traumatic chylothorax. Injury. 2016 Mar;47(3):545-50. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
10. Tu CY, Chen CH. Spontaneous bacterial empyema. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2012 Jul;18(4):355-8. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
11. Skouras V, Kalomenidis I. Chylothorax: diagnostic approach. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2010 Jul;16(4):387-93. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. Tsauo J, Shin JH, Han K, Yoon HK, Ko GY, Ko HK, Gwon DI.Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt for the treatment of chylothorax and chylous ascites in cirrhosis: a case report and systemic review of the literature. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2016 Jan;27(1):112-6. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. Bensoussan AL, Braun P, Guttman FM. Bilateral spontaneous chylothorax of the newborn. Arch Surg. 1975 Oct;110(10):1243-5. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Asnis DS, Saltzman HP, Iakovou C, Byrns DJ. Anaerobic empyema and chylothorax. Inf Dis Clin Pract. 1994;3(5):368-70. [CrossRef]
15. Natrajan S, Hadeli O, Quan SF. Infected spontaneous chylothorax. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1998 Jan;30(1):31-2. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Guarracino JF, Murruni A; Basílico H, Villasboas RM, Halabe K, Barroso S, Demirdjian G. Chylothorax: Unusual complication presented in a burned child with an inflation injury under the effects of mechanical ventilation (Originial title Quilotórax: Complicación pocofrecuente en un ni-o quemado en asistencia respiratoria mecánica por síndrome inhalatorio). Revista Argentina de Burns 2000:15 (1). Available at: http://www.medbc.com/meditline/review/raq/vol_15/num_1/text/vol15n1p30.htm  (accessed 8/24/18).
17. Wang JT, Hsueh PR, Sheng WH, Chang SC, Luh KT. Infected chylothorax caused by Streptococcus agalactiae: a case report. J Formos Med Assoc. 2000 Oct;99(10):783-4. [PubMed]
18. Biswas A, Ghosh JK, Chatterjee A, Basu K, Chatterjee S. Infected chylothorax caused by escherichia coli in a non-immunocompromised child. Indian J Pediatr. 2008 Feb;75(2):192-3. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
19. Alkassis SH, Bou Khalil BK. Infected chylothorax [abstract]. Presented at American Thoracic Society international meeting 2010 https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1164/ajrccm-conference.2010.181.1_MeetingAbstracts.A4591 (accessed 8/24/18).
20. Epelbaum O, Kazianis J. Chylous empyema or empyematous chylothorax? [Abstract] Presented at American Thoracic Society international meeting 2011. https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1164/ajrccm-conference.2011.183.1_MeetingAbstracts.A6460 (accessed 8/24/18)
21. Wright RS, Jean M, Rochelle K, Fisk D. Chylothorax caused by paragonimus westermani in a native Californian. Chest. 2011 Oct;140(4):1064-6. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
22. Bakar B, Pampal K, Tekkok IH. Infected bilateral chylothorax in a problematic case. Curr Surg. 2012 April;2(2):62-5. [CrossRef]
23. Di Marco Berardino A, Inchingolo R, Smargiassi A, Re A, Torelli R, Fiori B, d'Inzeo T, Corbo GM, Valente S, Sanguinetti M, Spanu T. Empyema cause by prevotella bivia complicating an unusual case of spontaneous chylothorax. J Clin Microbiol. 2014 Apr;52(4):1284-6. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
24. Geerlings SE, Hoepelman AI. Immune dysfunction in patients with diabetes mellitus. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 1999 Dec;26(3-4):259-65. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
25. Boule LA, Ju C, Agudelo M, et al. Summary of the 2016 Alcohol and Immunology Research Interest Group (AIRIG) meeting. Alcohol. 2018 Feb;66:35-43. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
26. Milner JJ, Beck MA. The impact of obesity on the immune response to infection. Proc Nutr Soc. 2012 May;71(2):298-306. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Schild HH, Strassburg CP, Welz A, Kalff J. Treatment options in patients with chylothorax. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2013 Nov 29;110(48):819-26. [CrossRef]
28. Rudrappa M, Paul M. Chylothorax. StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2018 Jan. [PubMed]
29. Nadolski G. Nontraumatic Chylothorax: diagnostic algorithm and treatment options. Tech Vasc Interv Radiol. 2016 Dec;19(4):286-90. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
30. Misthos P, Kanakis MA, Lioulias AG. Chylothorax complicating thoracic surgery: conservative or early surgical management? Updates Surg. 2012 Mar;64(1):5-11. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
31. Sahn SA. Diagnosis and management of parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Dec 1;45(11):1480-6. [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Cite as: Eubank L, Gabe L, Kraft M, Billheimer D. Infected chylothorax: a case report and review. Southwest J Pulm Crit Care. 2018;17(2):76-84. doi: https://doi.org/10.13175/swjpcc097-18 PDF

Sympathetic Empyema Arising from Streptococcus anginosus Splenic Abscess

Emad Wissa, MD

Robert A. Raschke, M.D.

Manoj Mathew, MD, FCCP, MCCM 

Good Samaritan Regional Medical Center

1111 E. McDowell Road

Phoenix, AZ 85006

Abstract

We report a 52 year old male with a history splenic infarction, abdominal pain and shortness of breath. CT scanning revealed a splenic abcess and empyema. Cultures from both sites grew Streptococcus anginosus. These resolved with drainage and antibiotics. Physicians should consider Streptococcus species when confronted with a patient with splenic infarction.

Introduction

Sympathetic Empyema Thoracis or sympathetic empyema is a rare entity. The mechanism by which this occurs is via penetration by a subdiaphragmatic abscess into the pleural space. Most reported cases have occurred in the right hemithorax secondary to the presence of a liver abscess or ascites. Splenic abscess are rare and are often seen in the setting of embolic endocarditis, infections from Salmonella or other bacterial invade the infarcted spleen (1,2). To our knowledge, this is the first reported case of sympathetic empyema likely secondary to a Streptococcus splenic abscess.

Case Report

A 52 year old male presented with a 2 day history of shortness of breath and 2 a month history of left upper quadrant pain. His medical history included hepatitis C, drug abuse and splenic infarction. On examination his breathing was labored. His chest X-ray was remarkable for a left lower lobe opacification (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Chest x-ray showing left lower lobe opacification.

He was endotracheally intubated and started on broad spectrum antibiotics. A computed tomography (CT) of the chest and abdomen demonstrated a moderate left side pleural effusion, compressive atelectasis, a small amount of ascites and a splenic abscess (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Coronal CT of chest and upper abdomen.

A chest tube was placed into the left hemithorax, and a pigtail catheter was placed into the splenic abscess. Cultures from both sites yielded Streptococcus anginosus. The empyema was treated with antibiotics, and chest tube fibrinolytic therapy with tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) and dornase alpha. Blood cultures were sterile and echocardiogram revealed no vegetations. The patient was extubated on hospital day 4. The left pleural empyema responded well to fibrinolytic therapy with chest tube removal on day 10. The splenic abscess required long term drainage with pigtail remaining in place for 3 weeks before the abscess resolved. The patient was discharged home on hospital day 24 on amoxicillin.

Discussion

Sympathetic empyema is an infection in the pleural space caused by translocation of a bacterial infection from the liver, ascitic fluid or from a splenic abscess. This patient had a known history of splenic infarction predisposing him to bacterial invasion and splenic abscess formation. The absence of cough, sputum production, and lobar consolidation argues against an empyema arising from and underlying pneumonia, although we can not exclude that possibility. Our review of the medical literature demonstrates no known cases of sympathetic empyema from Streptococcus anginosus. Physicians should also consider this organism in a patient with a splenic abscess.

References

1. Buscaglia A. Empyema due to splenic abscess with Salmonella newport. JAMA1978;240:1990.
2. Tornos M.P, Mayor G, Nadal A, Soler A. Empyema and splenic abscess in infective endocarditis. Int J Cardio 1984;6:746-8.

Reference as: Wissa E, Raschke RA, Mathew M. Sympathetic empyema arising from streptococcus anginosus splenic abscess. Southwest J Pulm Crit Care 2012;4:48-50. (Click here for a PDF version of the case presentation)

Pulmonary Nocardiosis and Empyema in a Patient with Metastatic Neuroendocrine Tumor

Nimesh K. Patel, DO

Linda Snyder, MD

University of Arizona, Department of Medicine. Tucson, Arizona

Reference as: Patel NK, Snyder L. Pulmonary nocardiosis and empyema in a patient with metastatic neuroendocrine tumor. Southwest J Pulm Crit Care 2011;3:28-33. (Click here for a PDF version)

Abstract

Nocardia is a ubiquitous aerobic gram-positive bacterium that can cause local or disseminated infection. Nocardiosis involves the lung in the majority of cases. Nocardiosis is often an opportunistic infection, but can also affect non-immunocompromised hosts. This case report highlights the presence of empyema due to Nocardia cyriacigeorgica infection, an unusual feature of Nocardia pulmonary involvement. 

Case Presentation

History of Present Illness: A 65 year-old male with a history of metastatic neuroendocrine tumor of the pancreas, was admitted to the hospital with a one-week history of hemoptysis, cough, and dyspnea. He was treated for presumed community acquired pneumonia with moxifloxacin two weeks prior to admission. He was receiving monthly octreotide injections for treatment of the neuroendocrine tumor. The patient had no history of corticosteroid use.  

Physical examination:

Vital signs: Temperature 99.9F, Respirations18, Blood Pressure 104/69, Pulse 96, SaO2 91% on oxygen at 2 liters per minute by nasal cannula

General: The patient was in no acute distress. He was alert and oriented to person, place and time.

HEENT: No significant abnormalities.

Chest: Dullness to percussion, mid-lower right thoracic cavity, with scattered crackles. 

Cardiovascular: regular rate, normal S1 and S2, no murmurs appreciated.  Abdomen: positive bowel sounds, soft, non-tender, non-distended, positive hepatosplenomegaly. 

Extremities: +2 pitting edema bilaterally extending to mid-thigh level

Laboratory and radiographic findings: The peripheral white blood cell count was 8, 000 cell/mm³ with a differential as follows 91% neutrophils/bands, 7% lymphocytes, 1% myelocyte, 1% reactive lymphocyte, hemoglobin was 11 g/dL and the platelet count was normal. The basic metabolic panel revealed blood urea nitrogen of 30 mg/dl and creatinine of 1.5 mg/dl. The hepatic panel was normal except for an elevated alkaline phosphatase of 530 IU/L. Coccidioides IgM and IgG serology performed by immunodiffusion were negative.

The chest radiographs from two weeks prior to admission (Figure 1), admission (Figure 2) and admission computerized tomography of the chest (Figure 3) are shown.  

Figure 1. Chest radiograph two weeks before admission:  Right middle lobe consolidation with volume loss and small right pleural effusion

 

Figure 2.  Chest radiograph on admission: Increasing patchy opacifications involving the right upper lobe, right middle lobe, and left lower lobe, with cavity formation noted in the left lung. There is right paratracheal lymphadenopathy noted.

Figure 3: Computerized tomography of the chest showing multifocal consolidation with a necrotizing process containing central lucencies. A loculated, moderate sized right anterior pleural effusion with lucencies is compatible with an empyema.

Hospital course:

Our patient was started on broad-spectrum antimicrobial therapy and underwent chest tube drainage of the loculated effusion.  A sputum gram stain revealed 4+ weakly acid-fast branching bacilli, consistent with Nocardia. The gram stain of the pleural fluid showed 3+ polymorphonuclear cells and 3+ gram-positive, branching, weakly acid-fast bacilli, consistent with Nocardia.  The culture from sputum and pleural fluid grew Nocardia cyriacigeorgica. 

Computerized tomography of the brain showed no intracranial abnormalities. The patient was treated with high dose trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, two double strength tablets three times a day with monitoring of sulfamethoxazole levels. The patient clinically improved with antimicrobial treatment and drainage of the empyema. The chest tube was successfully removed and the patient’s symptoms of cough and dyspnea resolved. A chest x-ray showed resolution of the right middle lobe and left lower lobe infiltrative process.

Figure 4.  Chest radiograph post-antimicrobial treatment: Interval resolution of right middle lobe and left lower lobe infiltrative process. Post infectious inflammatory changes are noted in the right middle lobe.

Discussion

Nocardiosis is an important opportunistic infection caused by aerobic actinomycetes in the genus Nocardia. Nocardia asteroides has been considered the most common species to cause human disease, however classification has become more complex with the use of molecular techniques. Species formerly included in the Nocardia asteroides complex are now considered distinct species.  Nocardia cyriacigeorgica is one of the more common isolates and has been noted to cause pleural disease and empyema.  Nocardia species are found in soil and can become airborne; the most common route of entry for infection is inhalation. Effective cell-mediated immunity of the host is crucial to combating infection with Nocardia species.  Two recent reviews of nocardiosis highlight important clinical features of this disease (1,2). The most common symptoms are fever, cough, pleuritic chest pain and headache. Specific risk factors for Nocardia infection are present in the majority of patients and include corticosteroid treatment and immunosuppression. Additional risk factors include malignancy and chronic lung disease. Of interest to pulmonologists, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) was a common underlying condition, representing over 20% of patients with nocardiosis in these reports. Common chest radiographic presentations of pulmonary nocardiosis include consolidation, nodules and cavities. The diagnosis of pulmonary nocardiosis is made from sputum and bronchoalveolar lavage specimens in the majority of patients. In addition, recent reviews document that pleural effusions are present in up to 35% of patients with pulmonary nocardiosis.  In one report, when pleural fluid was sampled, Nocardia was isolated in the majority of patients. Nocardia cyriacigeorgica can cause invasive pulmonary disease and was found to be the predominant species in pulmonary nocardiosis in one review.

Summary

Nocardiosis is an important opportunistic pulmonary disease. The diagnosis should be included in the differential diagnosis of pulmonary infiltrates in immunosuppressed populations, including patients after organ transplantation, with advanced HIV infection and those receiving chronic corticosteroid therapy or chemotherapy. Radiographic findings of lung involvement are variable and include single or multiple nodules or cavities, alveolar or interstitial infiltrates, and pleural effusions. This case report highlights the unusual presentation of Nocardia cyriacigeorgica pulmonary infection with extensive cavitary parenchymal disease and concomitant empyema. 

References

1. Minero MV, et al. Nocardiosis at the Turn of the Century.  Medicine 2009;88:250-61.
2. Tomas RM, et al. Pulmonary Nocardiosis: Risk factors and outcomes. Respirology 2007;12:394-400 .
3. Latef SM, et al. Nocardia cyriacigeorgica empyema in 45-yr-old male with dual granulomatous lung disease. Chest 2008 134:c12001.
4. Schlaberg R. Nocardia cyriacigeorgica: an emerging pathogen in the United States.  Journal of Clinical Microbiology 2008;46:265-73.
5. Maraki S. Nocardia cyriacigeorgica pleural empyema in an immunocompromised patient.  Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 2006;56:333-5.